Monday, November 16, 2009

DEDICATED FREIGHT CORRIDOR CORPORATION OF INDIA LTD

REVOLUTIONIZING FREIGHT TRAFFIC- THE IR EXPERIENCE
DEDICATED FREIGHT CORRIDOR CORPORATION OF INDIA LTD
DFCCIL
Introduction
The Indian Railways constitute a critical component of India’s transport network, both for passenger as well as freight services. Railways are cost effective and also environment friendly. Yet, capacity and efficiency constraints in the freight segment have led to a significant shift from railways to road transport.
Renewed focus of the Railway Ministry on efficiency, customer care, and commercial principles is aimed at reversing this trend. The recent turn around in railway operations suggests that Indian Railways are poised for rapid growth in capacity expansion.
The high density Eastern and Western corridors are already saturated in terms of line capacity utilization. Accelerated growth of the economy is only adding to the congestion on these routes. A quantum jump in capacity is, therefore, necessary for meeting the rising freight demand on account of robust domestic growth as well as the rapid increase in international trade.
The objective of the project is to cope with the increase of freight transport demand in India by constructing new dedicated freight railway system, thereby promoting comprehensive regional economic development along the freight corridor, through improvement and modernization of inter-modal logistic system handling considerable freight.
The project is expected to augment the capacity of railway network to handle the large increase in freight traffic over the coming years. The DFC would enable freight trains to run at 80-90 km per hour, compared with the present speed of 25-30 km per hour.

Task force on dedicated freight corridors:
The Task Force Report suggests an institutional roadmap for the construction and operation of the dedicated freight corridors. These corridors would be constructed, operated and maintained by a corporate entity on commercial principles while relying on efficient technological solutions. Scarce budgetary resources would be leveraged for raising debt from the markets, based on a sound business plan.
The proposed corporate entity would provide the rail infrastructure, but would not itself engage in freight business, thus providing non-discriminatory track access on payment of haulage charges by train operators. This approach would herald large scale private investment and competition in freight operations. This underlying separation of rail from wheels would also mark a paradigm shift in the functioning of Indian Railways who have already introduced private participation and competition in movement of container trains. (Gajendra Haldea)

The Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India is a corporation managed by the Government of India to undertake planning & development, mobilization of financial resources and construction, maintenance and operation of the Dedicated Freight Corridors. DFCC has been registered as a company under the Companies Act 1956 on 30th October 2006. “Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCC)” is a special purpose vehicle created to undertake planning & development, mobilization of financial resources and construction, maintenance and operation of the Dedicated Freight Corridors. DFCC has been registered as a company under the Companies Act 1956 on 30th October 2006.
Over the decades, in order to keep populist election agenda, the passenger fares are slightly touched in spite of spiraling input cost. The loss sustained in the passenger fares is cross-subsidized by enormous increase in the freight tariff
Ministry of Railways have planned to construct a new Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) covering about 2762 route-km on two corridors, Eastern Corridor from Ludhiana to Haldia and Western Corridor from Jawahar Lal Nehru Port Mumbai to Tughlakabad/Dadri along with interlinking of two corridors at Khurja. Upgradation of transportation technology, increase in productivity and reduction in unit transportation cost are the focus areas for the project.
Need for Dedicated Freight Corridor Project
Economic liberalization policies of 1991 followed by information technology explosion have taken India to a new growth scenario. Backed by strong fundamentals and commendable growth in the past three to four years, the resplendent Indian Economy is poised to grow even further at an average of 8 to 10% in the next 3 years.
Transport requirement in the country, being primarily a derived demand, is slated to increase with elasticity of 1.25 with GDP growth by 10 to 12% in the medium and long-term range. Riding on the waves of economic success, Indian Railways has witnessed a dramatic turn around and unprecedented financial turnover in the last two and a half years.
This has been made possible by higher freight volumes without substantial investment in infrastructure, increased axle load, reduction of turn-round time of rolling stock, reduced unit cost of transportation, rationalization of tariffs resulting in improvement in market share and improved operational margins. Over the last 2 to 3 years, the railway freight traffic has grown by 8 to 11%, which is projected to cross 1100 million tonnes by the end of XI Five Year Plan.
The Indian Railways’ quadrilateral linking the four metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Howrah, commonly known as the Golden Quadrilateral; and its two diagonals (Delhi-Chennai and Mumbai-Howrah), adding up to a total route length of 10,122 km carries more than 55% of revenue earning freight traffic of IR.
The existing trunk routes of Howrah-Delhi on the Eastern Corridor and Mumbai-Delhi on the Western Corridor are highly saturated, line capacity utilization varying between 115% to 150%. The surging power needs requiring heavy coal movement, booming infrastructure construction and growing international trade has led to the conception of the Dedicated Freight Corridors along the Eastern and Western Routes.
Almost simultaneously, the Cabinet approved the report of the Task Force of the COI, which directed that a SPV should be set up to construct and operate the DFC. Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) gave "in principle" approval to the Feasibility Study report asking the MOR to go ahead with Preliminary Engineering cum Traffic Survey (PETS) for the two corridors, firm up the cost of the project and work out the financing options. In consonance with the recommendation of the Task Force of COI, a SPV, named "Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL)" was incorporated under Companies Act in October 2006. Subsequently, RITES submitted the PETS Report based on which the project was approved at a cost of Rs. 28,181 Crore.
Funding the Project:
The railways are likely to secure a loan of Rs 37,200 crore from multilateral institutions, including the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The amount is expected to take care of the construction of about 76 per cent of the proposed 2,739-km dedicated rail freight corridor (DFC). The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has already committed a loan of Rs 18,000 crore at an interest rate of 0.2 per cent for funding the 920-km stretch between Rewari and Vadodara on the proposed western dedicated freight corridor. The final agreement between the JICA and the railways is expected in the first quarter of 2009-10. Meanwhile, the World Bank has given its approval in principle for a loan of Rs 12,000 crore for the 730-km Mughalsarai-Khurja section, while the ADB has shown an interest in lending Rs 7,200 crore to finance the 430-km stretch between Khurja and Ludhiana. Both these stretches fall on the proposed 1,256-km eastern freight corridor between Ludhiana and Howrah.
“The rate of interest at which the World Bank and the ADB will advance these loans is likely to be 5.5 per cent. We have already started the process of negotiations with these institutions and a final agreement will be signed by the end of 2009,” said a senior official of Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Ltd (DFCCIL).
As part of the World Bank funding programme, DFCCIL has appointed a consortium of consultants which includes Parsons Brinkerhoff India, Halcrow, Wilber Smith and Lee Associates for system design, finalization of bid documents and supervision of the construction of the 300-km Khurja-Kanpur section on the eastern dedicated freight corridor.
“We have already submitted the draft pre-qualification document for design and build contract to the World Bank. The bidding process for the same is likely to commence by March 2009,” said the DFCCIL official.
Meanwhile, a technical assistance team from the ADB has held consultations with senior members of the Railway Board and DFCCIL. Following this, the ADB has proposed to provide technical assistance for undertaking a feasibility study of the Ludhiana-Khurja section.
A JICA report has estimated the total cost of constructing both western and eastern freight corridors at Rs 37,218 crore.
The debt-equity ratio of the project has been decided at 2:1. The railways will bring in the equity part.
“The commitments from multilateral institutions are a little higher than the estimated requirement. Since the project will be implemented over the next six years, there is always a chance of cost escalation. In such a scenario, it will be easy for them to lend more without going through the approval process,” said the DFCCIL official.
The Government of Japan has committed an amount of 2,606 million yen for the Engineering Services Loan under Dedicated Freight Corridor Project (Phase-I).

Structure of SPV:
The mechanism of SPV, owned jointly by the Indian Railways and the users of bulk freight services (e.g. port operators, shipping companies, oil companies, coal, iron ore and steel companies as well power companies, largely in the public sector) should be entrusted with the task of planning, construction and maintenance of infrastructure. The SPV will also be responsible for movement of trains on its system and operation of the dedicated freight corridors.
The Ministry of Railways should be the administrative Ministry for the SPV. In order to ensure that the SPV has effective independence in decision-making and is able to function with a market focus and business orientation it should have sufficient autonomy, delegation and flexibility in conducting its business.
The coming together of the Railways and mainly public sector undertakings that are bulk users of freight services, with some topping up by the Central Government, would ensure an adequate equity base, which could be leveraged for market borrowings for raising enough capital for investment in the dedicated freight corridor.
The Task Force considered the two broad models that are in existence in the world today and weighed the pros and cons of both vertically integrated and completely separated models. The vertically integrated model has its own advantage by way of synergy between infrastructure and operation but the disadvantage is that it does not allow above rail competition. The separated model allows above rail competition but suffers from the absence of synergy and also higher costs.
The Task Force recommends the adoption of a model, which captures the benefits of both the models. The SPV, which would own and maintain the track and other infrastructure, would also move the trains within the corridor on its system, but would not own or lease any rolling stock nor do any freight business other than haulage of freight trains. The Indian Railways and other qualified operators would run goods trains on the tracks of the corridors and would be given nondiscriminatory access for this purpose.
Whether the existing corridor should be used for the dedicated freight corridor and a new one constructed for the passenger corridor
Due to the major constraining factors on the existing high-density routes of Indian railways, which limit throughput, the dedicated freight corridors need to be constructed on new alignments. Augmenting freight capacity on existing network would involve significantly heavier investments. Furthermore the investment in dedicated high-speed passenger corridor would give relatively lower returns on capital.

It is widely recognized that in order to improve the performance of the Indian Railways it must be run on business lines and must become customer-oriented and market driven. At present the Indian Railways is not in a position to run purely on a commercial basis because it has social responsibilities.

The Indian Railway system has a dual role:
It provides commercial services while at the same time it performs a number of useful social functions. Activities such as movement of freight in general and of some classes of passengers are carried out on a commercial basis, but the Indian Railways also run suburban and other passenger services below cost, transport essential commodities at a loss, run branch lines that are not remunerative and are expected to provide increasing employment opportunities to the population. While the Railways cannot be absolved of these responsibilities, it is necessary for its efficient functioning, that the two roles are separated to the extent possible.
Railways (Rakesh Mohan Committee), since the objectives of commercial activities are different from those for social activities, separate parameters are needed to assess performance. Commonly accepted financial parameters like revenues, profits, return on capital employed etc. are appropriate to assess performance of the commercial projects. For social projects, operational parameters such as improvement in connectivity and punctuality, increase in traffic etc. could be used. Segregation of these two categories of activities and functions over the Indian Railways across-the-board is a formidable task. However, the dedicated freight corridors present a good opportunity to make a beginning by setting up an independent organization for its establishment and operation.
In India the railways have been losing freight business to roadways, although less rapidly than in advanced countries. Railways retain their relative advantage mainly in natural resource and intermediary goods markets in which there are large volume movements and relatively low value-to-weight ratios and tend to lose it as the value-to-weight ratios of manufactured commodities increases unless they can provide high quality container services particularly on medium and long hauls. In order to retain and even increase market share the Railways need to be repositioning itself all the time in order to meet the challenge of competition from the road sector. For that it needs a market focus in its operation. In the new organization for the dedicated freight corridor it should be possible to undertake periodic performance-review and problem solving sessions with major clients to improve the service. Information may need to be collected on the enterprise’s competitive position vis-à-vis the roadways sector, and improvements undertaken.
The competitive pressure on Indian Railways will increase with the further upgradation of the National Highways on the Golden Quadrilateral, which is now being taken up for six-laning. In order to compete with the roadways it would be necessary not only to lower price but also to improve performance
Generally in accordance with the requirement of the clientele. According to a nation-wide survey of users of rail freight services conducted in 1997, the results of which are mentioned in the Rakesh Mohan Committee Report, the Indian Railways was rated below roadways on all parameters viz., reliability, availability, price, time, connectivity, suitability, damages, information sharing, adaptability, cost-friendliness, negotiability, access to officials, ease of payment and claim time. These aspects can be addressed more efficiently in an independent organization operating services in the dedicated freight corridors than in a very large organization like the Indian Railways.
Following the initiation of economic reforms in 1991, India has been gradually increasing its integration into the world economy. With the abolition of import licensing and the gradual reduction in customs duties, Indian manufactures have to compete with foreign manufactures not only in foreign markets but in the domestic market as well. Unless the Indian industry has the benefit of world-class services at internationally competitive prices, it would not be able to compete with its foreign counterparts. In India many production centers are situated away from the ports and production and consumption centres are also far apart. In this situation it is not simply the cost of transport that matters. Equally important is the quality and reliability of service. In an increasingly competitive environment the Indian industry has to keep its inventories of raw materials and intermediate products down and keep pace with the imperatives of just-in-time manufacturing. All that is not possible if a reliable transporter does not back the supply chain of industrial goods. Unless its performance is improved through the adoption of a customs-oriented approach, in providing particularly on-time services, the Indian Railways cannot provide that type of service.
In recent years, the Indian Railways has taken a number of steps to improve its services, with the result that its physical and financial performance has shown marked improvement. This is a welcome development. However, the Railways has to do much more to improve the quality of its services. A separate new organization, which is not burdened with the task of balancing the conflicting objectives, would be in a much better position to follow a market savvy approach and lift the standard of service significantly.
The Task Force noted that the development of a dedicated freight corridor is highly capital intensive. The provision of such a corridor and its operation must be on commercial principles if quality services are to be provided on a sustainable basis. This would require setting up of higher productivity standards, entailing the adoption of norms, benchmarks, policies and practices, which may be significantly different from what are being followed by the Indian Railways.
Finally, the investment requirement of the freight corridors is currently estimated to be at least about Rupees 22,500 crore, although the RITES study now under way might well result in a higher estimate. The project would take at least five years for implementation (after the new organizational structure is established, project report finalized, approval obtained and funding firmed up) and assuming that the current estimates are correct, the average annual requirement would work out to more than Rupees 4500 crore. This requirement would be over and above the normal requirements of the Railways for renewal and replacement, acquisition of rolling stock, multiplexing, modernization, projects for new lines and conversion into broad gauge etc. There are constraints in the Central Government allocating and in the Railways generating funds of this magnitude. The prospect of the Japanese Government providing assistance for the dedicated freight corridors is being explored. A final picture in this regard will emerge only after a study commissioned by the Japanese International Co-operation Agency (JICA) is completed. The current assessment is that the aid, if forthcoming, will be available in two to three years.
In light of the above an independent commercial organization, capable of raising funds from the domestic capital market appears to be the only feasible option. Such an organization would be able to leverage equity of say about Rupees 7,500 crore to raise a debt for the remaining requirement of Rupees 15,000 crore and finance the project. A departmental enterprise of the Ministry of Railways may not be able to raise loan from the domestic capital market, but a separate corporate entity will, if it inspires confidence in its ability to run as a commercially viable undertaking. Worldwide railway undertakings, particularly those that also take up infrastructure development, have generally not been able to run as profit-making commercial enterprises. Recovery of capital spent on the infrastructure has not been accomplished and capital grants from the Government have been the general practice

Having regard to the factors considered above, a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) would seem to be best suited to carry out the task of planning, construction and operation of the dedicated freight corridor. Should the SPV be owned fully by the Indian Railways or should it have a more diversified ownership? The Task Force believes that a more diversified ownership with other stakeholders, mainly from the public sector, as investors in equity would be in the best interest of efficient management of the freight corridor, besides generating the requisite equity fund. Some of the stakeholders identified for the purpose are the port operators including Port Trusts, shipping and shipping-related companies, oil companies, coal, iron ore and steel companies, such as CCL and SAIL and NMDC, and power companies such as the NTPC.
It would be recalled that the Department of Shipping had at one time indicated that port operators/ shipping companies were interested in constructing and operating the freight corridor between Delhi and Mumbai. The oil companies are likely to continue as one of the main users of the railway system even as they make increasing investments in pipelines. CCL, SAIL, NMDC and NTPC would have a major stake in the development of many segments of the Eastern Corridor, but to motivate them to make investments, it would be necessary to take their requirements into consideration while deciding on the alignment.
Even though the Task Force believes that the SPV could be viable as a commercial undertaking, it does not consider that at the outset it would generate interest among private sector investors, except a few entities already in transport business. The investment would have to be made principally by the Railways and the public sector companies named above. The Task Force recommends that the equity be shared between the Railways (including its subsidiaries) and the other stakeholders, mainly the bulk users of freight services among the PSUs. The Central Government could come in for meeting any shortfall in equity that might arise.
Participation of the above-mentioned stakeholders would serve two ends. First, the burden on the Railways for making a large equity investment would be reduced and the funds available with public sector undertakings would be utilized. Second, financial participation by users of freight services would bring to the boardroom the much needed customer orientation and help to bring a market focus in the working of the organization.
It will be ensured that the SPV functions fully as an independent commercial enterprise. The Ministry of Railways should be the administrative Ministry for the SPV. The appointment and number of functional Directors should adhere to PESB guidelines. Further, the Ministry of Railways should nominate one part-time Director as stipulated in the PESB guidelines. Similarly, appointment of independent Directors should also be governed by PESB guidelines.
The Task Force recommends that in order to help ensure the requisite volume of financing
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as well as to provide adequate representation of other stakeholder interests, the Board should have a nominee each from the Finance Ministry and Planning Commission. However, the representative of Railways Ministry expressed reservations.
Separation of Infrastructure from Operation
The Task Force considered the option of separation of control and management of the railway track and associated infrastructure on the one hand and above-rail operators (i.e. operators of rolling stock) which have been provided access, on the other. Such separation is considered by some as ideal for unleashing above-rail competition for greater efficiency. A situation in which no rail operator controls the infrastructure can ensure equality of access.
The Task Force reviewed the international experience in this regard. There are three basic models in existence.
First is the vertically integrated structure, as in China, Russia, India, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, to name a few countries with large railway systems. Where publicly owned some of the railway systems are run either directly by Ministries or by corporate units or organizations owned by Government. In Russia, China and India the State-owned companies are horizontally integrated, while in Brazil, Mexico and Argentina there are many privately owned regional companies. In other instances, the integrated railways are run by the private sector on the basis of concessions or franchises awarded by the government owner. In yet other cases, the integrated structure is owned and managed by the private sector.
Second is the structure in which the dominant user is integrated with infrastructure while incremental users have access for which they pay access fees. The best example of this is in the US, in which one vertically integrated freight railway uses the infrastructure of another vertically integrated freight railway without much difficulty. Further the Amtrak under public ownership runs its passenger trains over the tracks of the privately owned freight railways. In Japan, the Japan Rail Freight Corporation runs as a Government undertaking on infrastructure owned by privatized regional undertakings, which carry passengers. This model has also been adopted in Canada, Mexico and other countries.
Third is the model in which the infrastructure is separated from the users but remains accessible to all under an access regime. We are familiar with this model in the roadways and airports, but in recent times it has been advocated as one of the ways of restructuring railways. The European Union has adopted this model progressively since 1991, but infrastructure and operations were genuinely split in a number of other countries even earlier.
In all these countries both the infrastructure and operations remained mainly under public ownership. The British Government, although a member of the European Union, went far beyond others in establishing a separate infrastructure enterprise in onjunction with one or more freight companies, intercity passenger companies, and a number of regional or suburban passenger companies, which were all privatized. The British experiment was unique in that the infrastructure company was also privatized. However, the experiment for privatization of the infrastructure was not successful and the privatized infrastructure company became bankrupt and had to be renationalized. It should be noted that even when the infrastructure company in Britain was The Delhi-Mumbai & Delhi-Howrah Freight Corridors • 11 privatized more than a third of its income came from state subsidies to train operators, which were passed through. The bankruptcy was a direct consequence of the Government turning off the tap.
The experience of separation in Australia also has a similar lesson. A World Bank Report (TP-7 OF September 2005) on the experience of restructuring in the Australia and New Zealand, has come to the following conclusion on the operation of the Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC), which was established in 1998 to manage access and infrastructure development on the interstate track:
“The publicly owned ARTC, which manages many of the higher density interstate rail corridors in Australia, has been cash positive but earns significantly less than the replacement cost of its assets, and over the longer term will require some public funding to sustain and enhance its network. The Australian Government has already committed to significant grants to uplift the quality and performance of the interstate rail network, including improving access into the congested Sydney network. However, as volumes increase the commercial performance of the ARTC, which has spare capacity and largely fixed costs, will improve.”
The European Union has been moving towards separation since 1991. Article I of the Council Directive of 29 July 1991 on the development of the Community’s railways (91/440/EEC) explains both the aim and the content of the directive.
“Article I
The aim of this Directive is to facilitate the adoption of the Community railways to the needs of the Single Market and to increase their efficiency;
· by ensuring the management independence of railway undertakings;
· by separating the management of railway operation and infrastructure from the provision of railway transport services, separation of accounts being compulsory and organizational or institutional separation being optional,
· by improving the financial structure of undertakings, -by ensuring access to the network of Member states for international groupings of railway undertakings and for railway undertakings engaged in the international combined transport of goods. Article 6 of the Directive mandated Member States to ensure that ‘the accounts for business relating to the provision of transport services and those for business relating to the management of railway infrastructure are kept separate. Article 10 directed that international groupings must be granted access and transit rights in all Member states in respect of international services.”
Member States implemented the Directive in various ways. We have seen that the British Government not only brought about a total separation but also broke up the two segments into multiple private companies. Sweden had initiated action for setting up separate public sector undertakings for infrastructure (Banverket) and operations (SJ) even before it acceded to the European Union in 1995. On 29 April 2004 the European Union moved further for bringing about enhanced access. By the Council Directive 2004/51/EEC the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union required not only that railway undertaking must continue to be granted access to the Trans-European Rail Freight Network but also they must be given access for the purpose of operating all types of rail freight services.
While the European Union is committed to forge ahead with the separation model, reviews of the implementation of the policy seem to indicate that in railway circles there is considerable doubt on the acceptability of the separation model as the superior option. A recent publication states that “no clear view emerges on the ‘best’ model (integrated or separated)” (Community of European Railway and Infrastructure Companies 2005, Reforming European Railways- An assessment of progress, Eurorail Press, Hamburg). Another publication, of which the author was Director of the Public Transport Union in Switzerland from 1969 to 2000, is more forthright in his assessment. “As does the generally known situation in Great Britain, also this analysis of the seven countries with institutional separation gives proof of the fact that separation has no benefits. It only brings serious problems” (Pfund, Carlo, Separation Philosophy of the European Union-Blessing or Curse, Service D’Information Pour Les Transports Publics).
A communication from the Executive
Director of the Community of European Railway and Infrastructure Companies (CER) in Brussels addressed to the Chairman of the Task Force states:
“There is no empirical evidence in Europe that separation between infrastructure and operating services leads to real improvements in the railway system: just the other way around.” The same communication brings out the following facts:
· The CEO of the most successful railway company in Europe (in terms of capacity utilization, customer satisfaction, quality, etc.)- the Swiss railway company SBB believes that the high quality of SBB rail services is only possible because he can optimize simultaneously the synergy of infrastructure and operation within one company under one management.
· Despite the EU move towards separation almost all countries in the centre of Europe - i.e. those companies experiencing a high density of rail traffic - have retained the model of integrated holding companies (Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg) in order to maintain a high efficiency and productivity of the railway system as a whole. Separation has been effected mainly in countries at the periphery of Europe, i.e. without transit traffic and with considerably lower traffic intensity.
· The experience in quite a number of European countries (Germany, Switzerland,
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Austria, Italy, Poland, etc.) has shown however that the objective of competition can be achieved without giving up the model of an integrated company. The Deutsche Bahn has the full responsibility for the rail infrastructure, but shares the offering of railway services today with 290 other rail companies having a railway company licence for the German network. A well functioning regulatory framework defines the general rules for the access to the rail infrastructure - rules to be applied by Deutsche Bahn, which is supervised in this respect by a German public rail authority.
In order to get over the handicaps of separation, efforts are underway to reinforce again cooperation and links between the separated units in order to regain the interdependencies and synergies of the railway system. Publications on the subject of railway organization have also brought up some other relevant facts:
· Even where separation has taken place sometimes it is more in form and less in substance. In France the infrastructure company, RFF, owns the infrastructure assets but maintenance of the infrastructure as well as operations is handled fully by SNCF, the National Railway System. RFF defines the principles and objectives of traffic management and direction, and SNCF is the delegated infrastructure operator contracted for operation and maintenance. Thus SNCF is formally separate but materially integrated (Pfund, Carlo, Separation Philosophy of the European Union- Blessing or Curse).
· Studies by scholars show that an integrated structure produces a cost saving of 27 per cent over a separated system (Ivaldi, M. and McCullough, G., 2002, Subadditivity tests for network separation, mimeo Toulouse and Northwestern University, cited in Reforming Europe’s Railways –An assessment of progress, Eurail Press, 2005)
The concept of synergy between infrastructure and operation is also referred to by experts as rail-wheel interaction and has been explained at length as follows:
Optimization of train operation on the network
The railway functions as a system of vehicles, infrastructure, and operation control technology, like a machine. Only through a combined working of all the elements of the technical system, operational reliability and safety can be guaranteed. This is where the railway differs from other transport modes. By means of permanent central coordination, including the use of modern telematics, the system can be optimized and can thus guarantee maximal efficiency and punctuality. By way of central coordination, headways of trains can be shortened until braking distance, timetables can be harmonized, and efficient measures can be taken in the event of incidents. Modern technology and traffic control systems make it possible to reduce headways between trains, to speed up vehicle turn-round cycles and to reduce the vehicles fleet held in reserve.
The optimal run of operations is only guaranteed by the integration of operations and infrastructure. Only a technically integrated
Report of the Task Force enterprise can assume full responsibility towards the customers for its run of operations.
Further technical development of the comprehensive railway system
Until technical innovations and adaptions in the railway world can finally be put into practice, they are subject to an onerous harmonization process. Different groups are involved in the elaboration of the service product, groups whose interests are not necessarily quite the same. An integrated enterprise, in its decision oriented towards the technical and economical overall optimum, can implement necessary innovations quickly and can assume responsibility for the investment risk. Railway offers that are competitive for a long time presuppose a permanent further development of the compound system railway as a homogenous whole. The other transport modes are developing themselves further at breakneck speed. In this innovation race, the railway can only stand its ground if technologies in the infrastructure, as well as in the vehicles, are developed further at the same speed and in a concerted way. High-speed lines and trains, the safety system ETCS, and the digital GSM-R radio communication system connected with it, all have been planned and developed by integrated railway enterprises.
Guaranteeing a high safety standard in the use of the latest technology
Train traffic puts special demands on observance of safety standards in the systemspecific interplay of wheel, rail and control technology. Also, if high safety standards can be defined or be monitored by a political authority, a clear responsibility for safety must in the final analysis be discernable. If one considers the implication in the case of accidents, a fragmentation of responsibility between operations and infrastructure must be doubly rejected. Overall responsibility for train operations can only be assumed by the manager or managing body who can control and supervise all safety-relevant influence factors. (Pfund, Carlo, Separation Philosophy of the European Union - Blessing or Curse, Service D’Information Pour Les Transports Publics).
The experience of British Rail in separation also has some lessons. AWorld Bank Report drew inter alia the following conclusion on this:
“Separation of infrastructure from operations did cause problems of complexity and cost (transaction costs). It did not cause increased accidents and it did not support an increase in demand. Whether it yielded benefits in the British context worth the added costs is still debatable. Alternative approaches, such as creation and sale of a limited number of marketdefined, integrated franchises might have worked equally well if not better (Thompson, Louis S., Privatizing British Railways Are there lessons for the World Bank and its Borrowers? Transport Papers, World Bank, TP-2 September 2004).”
One of the lessons that the above World
Bank paper draws from the UK experience is the following:
“Bank clients that are not compelled to adopt the EU mandates to separate infrastructure from operations should carefully explore the alternatives before adopting the UK or EU approach. The vertically integrated (infrastructure and operations) freight and passenger concessions in Latin America furnish a very valuable alternative model where traffic is heavily freight or heavily passenger oriented, and where on-rail, intramodal competition is not an important objective. The model in which the dominant user is integrated with infrastructure, but other, sometimes competing, sometimes complementary, users are permitted access as tenants, also deserves strong consideration where there is a strongly dominant user and an effective regime of independent economic regulation to assure fair access for the tenants”.
On the question of independent infrastructure companies operating on a commercial basis and earning returns on the investment we have seen that the Australian Rail Track Corporation, while making cash profits is dependent on substantial grants from the government for sustaining its network. In the Member states of the EU the position is no different. Where separation has taken place the infrastructure is owned and maintained by public sector undertakings, and available evidence indicates that although they are not incurring cash loss, they are not generating enough revenue to give a return on the assets transferred to them and some of them continue to need periodic injection of capital from government.
There is overwhelming evidence from international experience that an undertaking entrusted with the ownership and maintenance of rail infrastructure is unlikely to be financially self-sufficient. Financial self-sustenance is even more unlikely in the case of a new entity, which is asked to undertake heavy investment at a time at which the market price of several inputs such as steel and cement are running at historically high levels
The Task Force considered the main models that are in existence in the world today and weighed the pros and cons of both vertically integrated and completely separated models. The vertically integrated model has its own advantage by way of synergy between infrastructure and operation but the disadvantage is that it does not allow above-rail competition. The separated model allows aboverail competition but suffers from the absence of synergy and also higher costs. The separated model encouraged by the EU has not been fully adopted by the major railway systems in the EU itself, as the only mandatory requirement is that the accounts be separated. Some of the leading and successful railway systems such as Japan and the USA have not gone in for institutional separation between infrastructure and operations.
The Task Force also considered a number of variants of the organizational structure in order to capture the benefits of different models in existence in the world today, including one in which the SPV would not only own the infrastructure but would also be the dominant operator, allowing the Indian Railways and other qualified operators to conduct business of freight movement and run trains in competition with it. However, the consensus in the end was that the SPV would be responsible only for the infrastructure and for the movement of trains on its system, while the Indian Railways and other qualified private and public operators would run trains on the tracks owned by the SPV. Thus the SPV would plan, build, own and maintain the infrastructure and move the trains on its system, but would not own or lease any rolling stock nor do any freight business other than haulage of freight trains.
The Task Force, therefore, recommends the adoption of the organizational model in which the SPV builds, owns and maintains the infrastructure and moves the train within the corridors on its system, while allowing non-discriminatory access to Indian Railways and other qualified private and public sector operators of goods trains within a regulatory framework.
The SPV would not own or lease any rolling stock nor do any freight business directly with clients. The ability of the SPV to run as a profit making commercial enterprise giving some returns on equity can be judged only after a feasibility report is received from RITES. However, having regard to international experience, it is likely that with this organizational structure, the SPV would require periodically to be granted substantial funds for capital improvements in its assets though such need for support would be mitigated by the density of traffic on these corridors. Despite the lack of assurance of a return on capital, the Task Force believes that the user PSUs would have sufficient stake in developing an efficient railway system for freight movement to be encouraged to contribute to the equity of the SPV.
The Delhi-Mumbai & Delhi-Howrah Freight Corridors • 17
In some countries roadways and waterways offer adequate inter-modal competition. While the extent of inter-modal in the Delhi-Howrah segment can be assessed only after the exact alignments of the corridor are known, the Task Force believes that on the Mumbai-Delhi segment trucks moving on the National Highways would offer enough competition to the dedicated freight corridor. With the broadening of the highways into sixlane recently announced by Government the competition would intensify.
The dedicated freight corridor could still manage to retain and even increase its share of the freight business if it can offer the reliability that the manufacturing industry would want in particular. The service could improve further if trucking and railway services complement each other in the transport of containers, for instance. Even if inter-modal competition can be expected to keep the dedicated freight corridor on its toes, allowing the Indian Railways and other players to operate on these tracks would increase market contestability further.
Market Contestability
The Task Force examined the question whether the existing infrastructure could be used for the dedicated freight corridor and new railway tracks constructed for passenger trains. It was pointed out that the existing infrastructure imposed significant technical constraints limiting the payload carrying capacity of freight trains. Axle Load permitted on the tracks is 20.3- 22.9 tonnes against 25 to 37.5 tonnes per axle carried by major freight carrying systems. The length of loops provided in yards and in stations is 686 metres, limiting the length of trains to 58 BOX ‘N’ wagons. Against this, heavy haul freight systems internationally carry more than 100 wagons, with the Australian system carrying over 300 wagons per train. The moving dimensions, which is the space envelope in which the locomotives, coaches or wagons have to be designed is restricted on the Indian railways.
The envelop in other countries is larger allowing use of wagons with higher crosssectional area permitting increased pay load in the same wagon. Payload to tare ratio i.e. the payload compared to empty weight of wagon is in the range of 4-7 internationally against 2.5 prevailing in India. The envelope cannot be increased as structures on the track like stations, platforms, roofs, bridges, tunnels, road over-bridges etc. have been constructed with clearances according to the current space envelope. The Railways may not be able to cope with the growth in container traffic of around 15% annually without double stack movement. Double stack container movement would not be possible due to the physical limitation imposed by the restrictive space envelope. Increasing clearances will mean large-scale investment in raising bridges, increasing width in platform areas, increasing height in platform areas, increasing height of electrical OHE, tunnel sizes etc.
The technical constraints indicated above limit the payload, which can be cleared in one train and consequently the throughput of the section. One train in Australia clears the same payload as would require 6-7 trains in India. Thus the sectional capacity gets vitiated on the Indian Railways due to extra trains being run. Making the existing tracks fit for high axle load, increasing loop length and clearing physical impediments on existing structures would not only be very difficult but extremely costly, and a big challenge in built-up urban/semi-urban areas. A dedicated freight corridor free from the technical limitations enumerated above and fit for high axle load, longer trains and larger clearances can be constructed afresh with little extra investment compared to normal track construction.
To summarize, the following are the major constraining factors on the existing high-density routes of Indian railways, which limit throughput, and which necessitate the construction of freight corridors on new alignments:
· The axle load limitation on the existing network is 20.3-22.9 tonnes against 30 tonnes and above in major freight carrying systems.
· The length of loops in yards and stations is limited to 686 metres against nearly double the figure in other freight carrying systems.
The Delhi-Mumbai & Delhi-Howrah Freight Corridors • 19
Whether the New Corridors Should
be for Freight or Passenger Trains
· The maximum moving dimensions allowed by the existing structures along the tracks, which determines the space envelope for the design of locomotives and wagons, is restricted and less than what is available even on the narrower standard gauge in other countries.
· Payload-to-tare ratio internationally is much higher than the existing 2.5 prevailing in the Indian railways.
The Task Force was of the view that establishing a new passenger corridor instead of a freight corridor was not tenable for a number of reasons. A high-speed passenger corridor needs a higher level of technology to provide the necessary safeguards towards safety, and other systems including coaches, locos and signaling etc. The high-speed train system between Mumbai and Ahmedabad that was proposed in the past was estimated to cost around Rupees 70 crores per km. For the Delhi-Mumbai and Delhi-Howrah passenger corridors, a total distance of 2800 kms, even at 50 % of the earlier estimate the project cost would be around Rs 100,000 crores. Against this the corresponding freight corridors are estimated to cost Rs 22500 crores. Given the magnitude of funds required for the passenger corridors, the project cannot be given priority over the freight corridors. As a matter of fact the Task Force was informed that at a meeting taken by the Finance Minister on 22 August 2005 the view had been taken that the decision on not taking up the dedicated passenger corridor was a settled issue.
To summarize, the dedicated freight corridors have to be preferred over high speed passenger corridors for the following reasons:
· The investment requirement to build passenger corridors is five times that required for freight corridors
· Simultaneously significantly heavy investments would be required to augment capacity on existing networks to cater to the freight business.
· Even after these investments physical limitations imposed by the restrictive space envelope would remain
· Investment for the dedicated high-speed passenger corridors would have relatively lower returns on capital, which the country can ill-afford.

Sunday, November 15, 2009

PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP IN RAILWAYS

Public-Private Partnership in Railways

Public-Private Partnership in Railways: A New Approach:
The existing literature on public private partnership (PPP) is largely project-centric and deals mainly with non-railway transport infrastructure. The railway is different from other modes of transport because of the strong interrelationship that exists between railway projects and the existing network/system in matters of operation, maintenance, etc and not much PPP literature exists in this area. The current approach to private participation in railways is a reform oriented policy approach that dwells on restructuring, privatizing, licensing, unbundling and deregulating the existing set up. This could be termed as a top-down approach. In contrast, the evolution of private partnership in the Indian Railways (IR) is a bottom-up phenomenon – incremental, multidimensional and without any change in the existing set up. A different framework is required to capture this evolution.
This paper is based on research carried out on the Indian Railways, in which seven railway companies were studied. These companies either came into being as part of private partnerships or used varied forms of private partnerships. The views of thirty key people associated with such partnerships were collected through interviews. PPP in IR has evolved over the last two decades in response to a strong need for increasing investment, prioritising projects, allocating dedicated funds, and reducing losses in peripheral services. An alternative two-dimensional three level framework for PPP in the railways has been developed, which not only captures private partnership in IR but also facilitates the development of strategies and vision for the future. The framework may help in laying down future goals for encouraging PPP at three levels – project level, organisation level and sector level – and shows interlinkages among the three for achieving the goals. It also represents an alternative approach to railway privatization with better social and political acceptance, which will encounter less resistance to change within the government organisation. (Volume 20, Number 1 Article by Anil Kumar Gupta & Shyamal Roy March, 2008) Courtesy: IIM Bangalore website.

The Railway Minister Lalu Prasad has given a hint to open Indian railway for Private companies in the name of Public Private Partnership (PPP). He was delivering his speech at the Conference on Public Private Partnership (PPP) I n Indian Railways. The FICCI had organized the conference. He disclosed the truth from the same podium that he did not ever want the post of Railway Ministry. He was asking for some other ministry. He encouraged the industry people to invest through PPP in Indian Railways. He said that Private sectors might help for modernization of railway stations to excellent standards. Indian Railway is planning to set up agricultural outlets on 7,000 railway stations across the country and the minister asked for private sector to join hands with Indian Railways.
The other areas where PPP might work are construction of sidings and logistic parks, wagon manufacturing, port-connectivity through railways, and constructing the Freight Corridor. It will help railway to stay with the need of modern India that is showing more hunger for development.
The Indian Railways are prima facie encouraging Public-Private Partnership in the capacity enhancing and modernizing exercise. Projects through the PPP model have been started in a few sectors and envisaged in few other areas. This paper is an attempt to assess the degree to which PPP has penetrated the Indian Railways.
The Indian Railways operates the world’s second largest rail network under a single management. It has an established route length of 62,759 km divided into three gauges – broad, metre and narrow.
The functions of the Indian Railways can be divided into core and non-core activities. The core activities comprise transportation of freight and passengers (running of trains and owning of assets) and non-core activities comprises catering, running schools and colleges for the children of the railway staff, medical healthcare facilities for the railway staff, production units and workshops, protection force for the safety of railway assets, maintenance of an exclusive telecommunications network etc.

PPP Project means a long term project based on a contract or concession agreement, between the Government or statutory entity on one side and a private sector company on the other side, for delivering an infrastructure service on payment of user charges. Typically, a private sector consortium forms a special company called a special purpose vehicle (SPV) to build and maintain the asset. The consortium is usually made up of a building contractor, a maintenance company and a bank lender.
Risk sharing is one of the most important features of a PPP. The PPPs most likely to succeed incorporate a risk mitigation framework that apportions risk in terms of capacity to bear.
The Railway Act:The Indian Railways Act stipulates that no private sector participation can be invited in the operations of the trains. Hence, the same is not open to the private sector.
Model Concession Agreement
The detailed modalities of the contract between the private player and the Government are specified in the document called Model Concession Agreement (MCA). This document plays a pivotal role in the implementation of the project. It clearly delineates the risks to be shared by the private player and the government and spells out the formula of sharing of the revenue among other important details. .
Types of PPP
PPP Model can be adopted through various ways. Maintenance Management Contract, Turnkey, Operate and management, ROT and BOT are few ways in which PPP can be adopted. BOT is the most preferred model for PPP in IR.
Viability Gap Funding
The money given by the government to the private player to make the project viable is called Viability Gap Funding. Support under this scheme would be available only for infrastructure projects where private sector sponsors are selected through a process of competitive bidding by offering grant assistance of up to 20% of the project costs, the Government will be able to use its scarce budgetary resources to leverage a much larger pool of private capital.
The Government of India has decided to put into effect the following scheme for providing financial support to bridge the viability gap of infrastructure projects undertaken through Public Private Partnerships.
Firstly, where the Government of India recognizes that there is significant deficit in the availability of physical infrastructure across different sectors and that this is hindering economic development
Secondly, where the development of infrastructure requires large investments that cannot be undertaken out of public financing alone, and that in order to attract private capital as well as the techno-managerial efficiencies associated with it, the Government 4 Guidelines Financial Support to Public Private Partnerships in Infrastructure 2006 published by the Secretariat for the Committee on Infrastructure Planning Commission. Further information on the same can be accessed from this report is committed to promoting Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) in infrastructure development
Thirdly, where the Government of India recognizes that infrastructure projects may not always be financially viable because of long gestation periods and limited financial returns, and that financial viability of such projects can be improved through Government support.
Projects through the PPP Model
In the past Indian Railways had made several attempts to rope in private participation in areas such as catering, wagon ownership and leasing and joint ventures for rail infrastructure projects. These efforts were, however, limited in scale and scope. The current strategy is to leverage private capital through PPPs to the maximum extent in areas which are amenable to PPPs to improve efficiencies and control costs.
1. Operation of container trains and Construction of Private sidings, ICDs and rail side warehouses IR has awarded licenses for container operations to 14 private sector companies, thus, ending the monopoly of Container Corporation of India (CCI) in this area. Most of the current parties are likely to use the operations for their internal use but dedicated third-party container operation providers might also emerge later to compete directly with CCI. These companies are involved in every step of the container business, from booking of traffic to aggregating the goods to distributing them at the destination by arranging transport. These companies would also pump in 2,000 crore to overhaul the terminals and purchase wagons.

740 crore was taken from these 14 players in license fees. In addition, Ministry of Railways intends to partner with State Governments, private logistics operators and infrastructure providers to establish multi modal logistic parks equipped with rail sidings with sheds, large inland container depots, warehouses for storage, office buildings for logistics operators, highway connectivity, and smaller assembly units for processing imported raw materials for export. Such Parks could either 11 be built independently at strategic locations or could be built in a Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
2. Construction of Dedicated Freight Corridor (Delhi-Mumbai and Delhi- Howrah) with a large component of PPP
It has been planned to construct a new Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC), initially covering about 2700 route kms equivalent to around 5000 track kilometers at an approximate cost of Rs.28000 crores (US$6 billion) linking the ports of western India and the ports and mines of Eastern India to Delhi and Punjab. It will ensure multi-modal logistic connectivity and will also significantly enhance railway freight capacity to handle the large volumes anticipated from the ports on the eastern and western coasts. The construction of this corridor will be implemented through an SPV being created for the purpose through a mix of Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) and PPP methods.
The proposed corporate entity would provide the rail infrastructure, but would not engage in freight business itself, thus providing nondiscriminatory track access on payment of haulage charges by train operators. This approach would herald large-scale private investment and competition in freight operations. This underlying separation of rail from wheels would also mark a paradigm shift in the functioning of Indian Railways. Ministry of Railways is in the process of selecting a global consultant to advise on the concession agreement, principles of track access charges and other financing and bidding issues. The concessionaire could also tap additional ancillary revenue streams through commercial exploitation of land, construction of freight terminal/logistic park/ICDs etc. Further, after firming up wagon designs for DFC, private investment for its manufacture would be encouraged. Four more Dedicated Freight Corridors are being planned for which feasibility studies are being awarded.
3. High Speed Corridors
Plans are also afoot to study the feasibility of high speed passenger rail link between major metropolises to improve connectivity and slash travel time for distances of 600-1000 km to within 2 ½ to 4 hours..
4. World Class Railway Stations, Passenger amenities and Commercial utilization of land Metro City Railway Stations like Delhi, Mumbai need to be modernized to provide world – class passenger amenities and services to the large multitude of passengers using these stations. IR is planning to do so by attracting private investments in the area by allowing the areas around the stations and the air space above platform to be commercially developed while operational/passenger – handling areas are separated from such commercial areas as in case of airports. The concessionaire would be expected to construct and maintain the operational and passenger areas free of cost, share the revenue earned from the real-estate created and hand over the same after the concession period. The pilot project for New Delhi Station is on the anvil. Altogether 19 stations have been identified at the first stage. These are CST Mumbai (Carnac Bunder), Pune, Howrah (Kolkata), Lucknow, New Delhi, Anand Vihar and Bijwasan at Delhi, Amritsar, Chandigarh, Varanasi, Chennai, Thiruvananthapuram, Secunderabad, Ahmedabad, Patna, Bhubaneshwar, Mathura Bangalore and Bhopal. Development of other stations green field passenger terminals would also be taken up in a similar manner.
Indian Railways has approximately 43,000 hectares of vacant land. These are mostly alongside track in longitudinal strips, around railway stations, and in railway colonies especially in metro and other important cities/ towns with potential of being used commercially to generate revenue as well as capital for modernization and capacity addition. An authority, namely, Rail Land Development Authority (RLDA) has been set up under the Railway (Amendment) Act 2005 to pursue, inter alia, the main objectives of generating revenue, up grading railway assets and providing world-class state-of–the art passenger facilities/services at stations.
5. Pipavav Railway Corporation Limited
A Special Purpose Vehicle named PRCL (Pipavav Railway Corporation Limited) which was formed with equal equity participation from Ministry of Railways and GPPL (Gujarat Pipavav Port Limited) for construction, Operations and Maintenance of Surendranagar-Pipavav Broad Gauge line, has implemented Surendranagar - Pipavav Gauge conversion/New Line project. The construction of this line has been completed and thrown open for Goods Traffic since March 2003. Earlier, connectivity of Mundra Port on the West Coast to the Broad Gauge network of Indian Railways was completed. Gandhidham – Palanpur gauge conversion is being implemented through involvement of Kandla and Mundra ports. Kutch railway Company, SPV formed with Kandla and Mundra ports, Government of Gujarat and RVNL are equity holders.
6. K-RIDE
A Joint Venture named K-RIDE (Rail Infrastructure Development (Karnataka) Limited has been formed jointly with the State Government of Karnataka for early completion of four identified projects in the State of Karnataka. K-RIDE will execute these projects through Project Specific SPVs.
First such SPV named HMRDC (Hassan - Mangalore Rail Development Co.) has been formed with equity participation from Ministry of Railways, Government of Karnataka and K-RIDE. Strategic partners and other financial institutions will also take part in the equity contribution. Besides, Government of Karnataka has agreed for funding of three rail projects by contributing two-thirds of the cost.
7. The Wagon Investment Scheme (WIS) with provisions for freight rebate and supply of guaranteed number of rakes over periods ranging from 7-15 years for various categories of wagons has been well received. The scheme would be reviewed on the basis of feed back of the subscribers and continued further.
8. Setting up of SPV for manufacturing of locomotives/coaches/wagons with sustained economic growth and the resultant demand for rail transport, the requirement of rolling stock has increased manifold. The requirement of coaches/Electrical Multiple Units is projected at 22689-vehicle unit for the XI Five Year Plan. The gap between the requirement and the combined capacity of the two Production Units at Integral Coach Factory, Perambur and Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala (around 2500 per annum) is planned to be bridged by augmenting the existing capacity of these Production Units and setting up a new manufacturing unit through a JV under PPP.
Similarly, the requirement of Electric and Diesel Locomotives has been projected at 1800 each during the XI Five Year Plan i.e. 360 locos per year. The existing in – house capacity for the manufacture of these locomotives is presently 150 per annum and can be augmented to 200 locos each per annum for Electric and for Diesel. The gap between the requirement and capacity is planned to be bridged by setting up two locomotive manufacturing units one each for diesel and electric locomotives through PPP. Possibility of PPP through long- term demand guarantee to prospective manufacturers of modern wagons is also being explored.
9. Parcel Services
Round-trip leasing of parcel vans in important mail/express trains is already being carried out on Indian Railways. 100 parcel vans have already been leased. A more comprehensive policy to run Express Parcel trains has been finalized. Two privately operated parcel trains are already in operation.
10. Catering Services, Budget Hotels and Food Plazas
Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC) has already been mandated to develop catering services, budget hotels and food plazas at major stations through involvement of private entrepreneurs. IRCTC intends to take up around a hundred such budget hotel projects in the next five years with public Private partnership. 20 such concessions have already been awarded. The hotel will be set up under the name of Rail Ratna in five cities - Chandigarh, Sealdah (West Bengal), Madurai (Tamil Nadu), Vijayawada and Secunderabad (Andhra Pradesh) in the first phase. The IRCTC land will be leased out to the hospitality sector on behalf of the railways and finalize the bids for 30 years to construct, operate and maintain the hotel as per the terms and conditions specified in the bid document.
IRCTC is also commissioning new Food Plazas in Railway premises with private participation. The license period for food plazas is of nine years with a provision of extension of three years. Already 40 such Food Plazas have been commissioned. IR is also in the process of carrying out an examination of the scope of need- based ‘base kitchens’ and ‘launderettes’ with public private partnership to strengthen the infrastructure for on -board services.
Call centres are also being planned under PPP by IRCTC to cater to the need for information dissemination to the railway customers.
Government Policy on PPP in Indian Railways
India needs investment in infrastructure to the tune of $456 billion at current prices (more than $80 billion in Railways) during the Eleventh five year plan (2007-2012) to keep pace with the economic growth its experiencing. It must be noted that in spite of such dire need of funds in IR and the limited nature of its surplus, the IR has followed an over-cautious approach in inviting private sector participation in Indian Railways.
The reasons for the same have been identified as follows:
1. There exists no clear roadmap for implementation of PPP in IR On interaction with the senior railway officials it can be easily drawn that the IR are being forced to look outwards for finance and techno-managerial skills. What we have is a list of projects that have been selected on urgency basis but without any sound official articulation or planning.
2. Political Climate: It is evident that in our country politics dominate the decisions relating to economic policies. In the words of a senior railway official in-charge of PPP, “We live in a political economy and hence political sensitivities of the times will have a bearing on the economic policies of the time. We don’t want to hit bigger roadblocks later on in future. We must not only be transparent but also be seen transparent. No blind privatization will take place and hence private sector participation will only be invited in areas which require immediate attention and that too where the private sector is capable of reducing costs and improving the quality of service.”
3. Enforceability of the Contract: A PPP can only be successful if the government can ensure discipline on part of the private player to enforce the contract and thus result in achieving the desired objective. A senior railway official reveals the true reason, “We lack prior experience in dealing with such complex situations and hence are going very slow as we don’t want any thing to go wrong.” It is clear that the IR does not possess the requisite managerial skills that the current complex business environment calls for.
4. Threat of Private monopolies: Another reason for the slow approach is the fear of emergence of private monopolies (in the place of state monopoly) in case right policies are not adopted. In the words of a senior railway official “The characteristics of the railways are such that private monopolies will mushroom in place of state monopoly in case the right policy is not adopted.”
6. PSU Mindset: Another fact accepted by the railways is that a change in the mindset of the people from top to bottom (from the gang man to the customer) in the organization is required for mainstreaming of the PPP model. To achieve this, dedicated PPP cells have been established in every state to identify the projects that can be implemented through PPP.
The private sector participation is not a gift without a curse. It comes with its own set of problems. It has historically been proved that inviting of private sector participation in case of a government monopoly has not always led to the private sector efficiencies and modernization. On the contrary it has led to monopolization in the hands of the private sector. Therefore it is of pivotal interest that whenever private sector participation is being talked about it should always be assumed to be inviting competition as well.
Conclusion
Non-critical areas in the Indian Railways should be identified and private sector participation should be allowed in the same. The Indian Railways should focus on the core activities of running and operating the trains. The prospects remain bleak for any major policy change due to an extremely weak record of enforcement of contracts in the long run.
Corporatization of Indian Railways is the best way to take the restructuring of the Indian Railways forward. The IR should also adopt General Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), the role of the Indian Railways Regulatory Authority should be strengthened and it should be allowed to decide the fares to be charged from the passengers with a provision for adequate compensation from the Union Budget for keeping fares cheaper to fulfil its objective of social welfare. Manufacturing of locomotives and wagons should also be through the PPP Model.

Thursday, November 05, 2009

SALUTES TO PEOPLE’S HEROES

SALUTES TO PEOPLE’S HEROES

SALUTES TO PEOPLE’S HEROES

The passing away of Mr. A Xavier of Dindigul and Mr. Paulraj of Madurai went unnoticed in the progressive circles of the Catholic Church of Tamil Nadu. As a friend and well wisher of the two people’s heroes, I stand to write a few lines in memory of them.
Paulraj was an old acquaintance to me. When I joined the St Joseph’s College, Trichy a Jesuit institution after my P U C in St Xavier’s College, Palaymkottai, Tirunelveli, Paulraj was one year senior to me both in the college and in the Sacred Heart Hostel. I should always remember Paulraj, as he was the inspiration for me to involve in AICUF. He encouraged me to join AICUF and take part in the activities. Another reason for us to come together was Rev Fr V Diaz, S J the Band Master of the St Joseph’s College Band , Trichy. While Paulraj played baritone I played trombone.
With his encouragement I joined AICUF and participated with full spirit. During the November 1976 some time after promulgation of emergency in the country, a seminar was organized on the foreign collaboration. As part of the seminar a poster exhibition was held in the Clive Hostel across the Teppa kulam, and a hall meeting in the community hall above the college canteen. I was asked to present a paper on the foreign collaboration in tooth pastes. I finally concluded in the paper that all such companies must be nationalized. That was my first appearance on the stage as a speaker. I owe a lot to Paulraj still I am confident in speaking in so many regional, national and international seminars and workshops. I vividly remember that he advised me on “cold feet”, do think that all the audience before you as less informed and then you would never feel nervous. It is true till date.

After my shifting to Loyola College Chennai in 1977, I lost direct contact with him. However, my destiny with AICUF continued and the National Secretariat of AICUF was just outside the campus of the college. With a little reluctance I entered the AICUF house. Rev A Xavier S J was there to invite me with such love and concern as the House Director. Thereafter, till 1983 when I was forced to break the official bond with AICUF house it continued as source of inspiration. The AICUF remains the first and last source of inspiration.

In 1978, once again Paul raj, Henry, Johnny were heroes in the AICUF as they were the pioneers to enter the Rural Education for Action and Development (REAL) Vedasendur near Dindigul. The name remains as the source of inspiration for so many generations of AICUFERs and non AICUFERs for involving with rural development. A word of Rev Fr Claude D Souza S J must be said at this juncture. He was instrumental in “brainwashing” the urban born urban English educated students to dabble with rural development. In fact he ushered in an era of rural development when the urban youth were dejected with national affairs and were attracted to naxalbari movement for armed struggle. He paved the way for silent revolution in the minds of the youth both within and outside the church. Thus, he saved a number of dejected and disgruntled youth from falling in to the clutches of extremist politics.

Paulraj after spending most of the years in REAL, left to Madurai to take part in politics. His contribution as a national executive member of the now defunct Indian People’s Front (IPF) is exemplary. After a decade or so he was not satisfied with the way the things went on within IPF. He retired thereafter to be local activist and visited many NGOs as adviser.

The untimely death of Paulraj is a perpetual vacuum among NGOs in rural areas. His name and fame has spread all over the country. Nevertheless, he was firm on the principle “think globally act locally”. At this juncture, I on behalf of thousands of ex-aciufers and NGO activists share the grief with his spouse Hephzibah and the children and re-dedicate ourselves for the cause of social change. Thank you Paulraj for every thing you gave us! Thank you Lord for giving such a wonderful person called Paulraj in our midst. We are proud to be his friends and contemporaries. .

The life and times of Rev A Xavier S J had touched many youngsters who took shelter under the huge banyan tree called AICUF. The warmth and convincing talk of Xavier is always remembered by generations of AICUFERs. The first thing that attracts the fresher in AICUF house is the house director who takes care of the boarding and lodging and the library.

Having got enlightenment, he left the Society of Jesus and married Lucy another kind hearted person. There were lots of controversies and criticisms on their marriage. However, a few of us believed that they have done the right thing in the interest of the church. The early church was indeed a lay church. They named his first son after Rev Fr Guerivere S J who was the think tank for AICUF for many years when he worked at the Indian social institute Bangalore and later New Delhi. The statistical man of AICUF was such a source of inspiration to generations of AICUFERs.

At this juncture, I on behalf of thousands of ex-AICUFERs and NGO activists share the grief with his spouse Lucy and the sons and daughters. We take this opportunity to re-dedicate ourselves for the cause of social transformation. Thank you Xavier for every thing you gave us! Thank you Lord for giving such a wonderful person called Xavier in our midst. We are proud to be his friends and contemporaries.

Wednesday, October 21, 2009


INTERNAL CHECK –PRE AND POST CHECK
1.1 INTERNAL CHECK

The check exercised By the Accounts office on the financial transactions of the Railways on half of Railway Administration is called internal check. This is called so to distinguish it from the audit conducted by the chief auditor of the railways receipts and expenditure on behalf of the controller and Auditor General of India. In fact the audit conducted by the Chief auditor should be rightly called “external audit” and the internal check carried out by the financial Adviser and his officers, on behalf of the Railway administration should be called “Internal audit” in modern parlance.

1. 1.1 The Scope and methods of internal check or internal audit have been brought out in detail in Chapter VIII of Accounts Code Volume I.

The Salient features of internal audit are as under.
(a) Check of Sanctions and orders,
(b) Check of delegation of financial authority,
(c) Check of all Establishment bills
(d) Pre-check and Post-check of expenditure
(e) Scrutiny of receipt - this includes inspection of original records at the stations as well as post audit of returns from the stations in the Traffic Accounts office;
(f) Internal check of debt and remittance transactions,
(g) Maintenance of Provident Fund Accounts,
(h) Check of pension payments,
(i) Prior check of all contractors bills etc., before passing the same for payment inspection of stations and other executive officers for checking the original records.

1.2 The Internal check is conducted with reference to -
(a) rules and orders issued by the President Railway Board, General Managers of Railways and various authorities,
(b) the instructions contained in the Codes and instruction issued from lime to time by the Railway Board,
(c) The recognized standards of financial propriety,

1. 3 While scrutinizing receipt. It should be seen
(i) That the amount due to the Railway for services rendered, supplies made, arc correctly and promptly assessed recovered as soon as they fall due,
(ii) that all receipt arc properly brought into account,
(iii» that all receipts are correctly classified, and if they represent an amount due to more than one railway, that they are correctly apportioned among the railways,

1.4 All claims against the railway are scrutinized with a view to see
(a) that the expenditure has been sanctioned by competent authority and that the expenditure is incurred by .an officer competent to incur it,
(b) that all prescribed preliminaries to expenditure are observed before disbursement of pay, etc.
(c) that it is covered by the grant at the disposal of the officer incurring it,
(d) that the expenditure does not contravene any rules and orders in force,
(e) that the expenditure does not involve a breach of the Standards of financial Propriety
(f) that the expenditure sanctioned for a limited period is not admitted beyond that period without further sanction,
(g) that in the case of recurring charges, which are, payable on the fulfillment of certain condition a certificate is forthcoming from the drawing office to the effect that necessary conditions have been fulfilled,
(h) that the charge is correctly classified,
As exceptions to this general rule the following payments may be; made before such check: - \
a} Payments from imprest
(h) Payment from station earnings when permitted under rules.
(e) Commission deducted by auctioneers from sale proceeds,
(d) Payment of certain classes of pay bills, muster sheets and labour pay sheets of open line staff specially permitted to be made by F.A. & C.A, 0.

1.5 INTERNAL CHECK OF SANCTIONS AND ORDERS
The Accounts Officer -should examine every rule. order or sanction whether issued by the president, the Railway Board, or any sub-ordinate authority in order to see
(a) that the authority framing the rule or according the sanction is competent to do so,
(b) that the sanction is definite.
(c) that the rule or order or sanction does not contravene any general or special orders of any higher authority and
(d) that the sanctions to expenditure of definite amounts, [he same arc always expressed both in words and figures.

1.6 TREATMENT OF ERRONEOUS PAYMENTS
When erroneous payments have been passed for considerable time. owing either to a wrong interpretation of financial rules or due lo oversight, the following procedure should he observed:
f) Wrong interpretation:
The new interpretation should be given effect from the date, which the competent authority may decide. If no date is specially fixed, the correct interpretation -should be given effect to from the date it is stated by the competent authority
Oversight
Payment made less than 12 months ago, should be recovered. Every overpayment of money to a railway servant is and must be regarded as a debt to public and all possible action should be taken for speedy recovery

1.7 POST CHECK OF PAID VOUCHERS
All bills, whether under the pre-check or the post check system in which payment has been made should be checked to see -
(a) that the acknowledgements of payments have been obtained (in English or Hindi).
(b) that the names of payees mentioned in the bills tally with the signatures obtained,
(c) that the payment has been witnessed, whereso required, by the official named in the bill and the acknowledgement is unqualified,
(d) that where a person other than payee himself has received the amount, the payment has been made under proper authority.
(c) that vouchers are stamped,
(f) that each voucher has been cancelled efficiently and promptly,

1.8 INTERNAL AUDIT AND INTERNAL CHECK :
Though Internal Check is part of Internal Audit as far as Railways are concerned yet there is a distinct difference between the two.
''International Audit is an independent appraisal function within an Organization for the review of activities as a service to all levels of Management. It is a review of the operations and accounts some-times continuously undertaken within a business by specially assigned staff".

The objectives of Internal Audit are
i) a Service to Management;
ii) ensures reliability and integrity of Accounts System.
iii) ensures compliances with rules and regulations;
Facilitate preventions and detection of frauds.
Internal Check is a part of the overall internal control system. The internal check is the check exercised on the day-to-day transactions which operate continuously as part of the routine system whereby the work of one person if proved independently of another.

SYSTEM OF INTERNAL AUDIT IN INDIAN RAILWAYS:
Internal Audit functions are performed in the form of Inspections of activity centres and offices by different agencies from Zonal and Divisional Railway offices:-
i) Inspection of Executive offices by Accounts Officers and Staffs as provided in Chapter-XVII of the Accounts Code Part-1,
ii) Inspection of stations by TIAs as per Chapter - XXXIII of Accounts Code - Part-II
Accounts Stores Verification of Stores as per Chapter-XXXIII of Stores Code
iv) Inspection of Subordinate Accounts offices by FA & CAO and his officers.
v) Inspection of Zonal Railway's Account Offices by the Board's Inspection Party,
All these Inspections are in the nature of Systems Audit ad Transaction Audit.
Further reading: Please refer Chapter-XVII of Accounts Code Part-1 to know more about the objectives of Inspections of executive offices and the records that are to be inspected.

STATUTORY AUDIT
2.1 Railways are part of the Government of India and not a corporation under any statute or Indian Companies Act. There is, therefore, no statutory audit of the type under Indian Companies Act. Statutory Audit is conducted by CAG which is much more comprehensive than company auditors and the audit report on performance is submitted lo the Par/lament by CAG, Public accountability is, therefore, maximum.

2.2 FUNCTIONS
The Comptroller and Audit General of India is the final audit authority in India and he is responsible for the audit of the accounts of the Indian Railways hut has no responsibility for the compilation of such accounts. The form in which account of the Indian Railway should he kept and changes in accounts classification affecting the recording of The expenditure in the Finance and Revenue Accounts are, however, subject to his approval (113-!).

2.3 OBJECT OF STATUTORY AUDIT (116 AI and 911 of Finance Code)
The Statutory audit has three fold purposes viz.
it is an accountancy audit - to check the accuracy and to see that all payments are supported by receipted vouchers,
it is an appropriate audit - to check to ensure that expenditure, receipts have been properly classified, and voted appropriations have not been exceeded
iii) it is also an administrative audit to check that expenditure has been incurred according to prescribed rules and regulations.
The main object of audit is to ensure -
a) that the system of accounts used by the internal check authority is correct,
b) that the method of check applied at every stage of the accounts is sufficient,
c) that the accounts are maintained and the checks applied with due accuracy and
d) that the arrangements exist in the accounts office to ensure attention to the financial interest of the railways on the part of all concerned.
2.4 RESPONSlBILITY
The responsibility of statutory audit is briefly as follows :-
a) it extends in respect of expenditure transactions lo all expenditure incurred in India.
(i) in respect of receipts, it includes receipt of Indian railways including receipts relating to accounts of manufacture,
c) it includes stores and stock accounts to do the extent prescribed by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
2.5 Audit is always conducted ex-post facto i.e. after the event-
Audit cannot prevent an overpayment through negligence or non-observance of rules and regulations. It is the duty of Audit to report results to the proper authority so that appropriate action is taken to rectify the irregularity wherever possible and atleast prevent its recurrence

COMMUNICATION FROM AUDIT -DRAFT PARAS AND AUDIT REPORTS (Chapter IX of Finance Code)
Ordinarily the results of statutory audit are communicated through -
a) Specific reports of the more important and serious irregularities discovered in the course of audit, of Accounts and departmental offices and station records,
b) Audit notes detailing minor irregularities discovered in the course of audit of accounts office records,
c) Inspection reports showing the results of audit of the initial records of executives offices (Para 916 of Financial Code).

An inspection report will consist of two parts, namely Part I dealing with the more important matters and Part II dealing with the rest, containing minor routine matters. Audit notes will also similarly consist of two parts. The final disposal of part II of audit notes and inspection reports rests with the Accounts officers and no formal reply to the Director of Audit is necessary. Replies to part I of inspection reports and audit notes and specific reports should be sent by the executive offices concerned to the accounts officer. In scrutinizing them, the Accounts officer should call for further information, if necessary, and consult the head of the division or department concerned, where desirable before giving a reply to the Director of Audit (918 and 919 of Financial Code). All audit objections and notes should be promptly attended to by the Accounts officer.

All important eases coming to the notice of Audit during inspections or regular audit which in the opinion of the Director of Audit merits inclusion in the Audit Report are brought to the notice of the Railway Administration through special letters, notes of objection etc., to the Heads of Departments/FA&CAOs by the Director of Audit. Since these special letters, factual statements form the basis of the material for the Audit Report, the Railway administration should deal with them at a sufficiently high level and bring out their point of view in a convincing manner before they proceed to prepare a draft paragraph for incorporation in the Audit report.

11.3 Draft paras
If it is decided by the Director of Audit that the statement of facts are required to be converted into a Draft Para for the Audit report, the draft Para prepared will be sent by the Director of Audit to the Personal address of the GM simultaneously sending advance copies of the draft Para with connected correspondence to the FA&CAO. HOD concerned, the additional Deputy, C&AG (Rlys) and the Director (Finance) Railway Board to facilitate prompt action and detailed examination. The railway administration is required to give a final reply lo the Director of Audit, after consultations with the Railway Board, within a period of eight weeks from the receipt of the draft Para. To allow some time for further enquiries and examination by the Railway Board, it will be necessary for the railway to forward the draft Para alone with a report from the Railway administration personally to the Director (Finance) Railway Board, as quickly as possible as but not later than five weeks of the receipt of the draft Para. The reply will be sent over the personal signature of the GM duly vetted by the FA&CAO.

Any modifications, which the Railway administration may desire to suggest, or any comments, which they wish Director of Audit to consider before giving their final reply should, as far as possible, be settled by personal discussions so that the final reply of the administration is sent within the overall time limit of 8 weeks. After the railway, administration has replied finally, any further enquiries by the Board or the Director of Audit will have to be dealt with based on highest priority,

11.4 Audit report of CAG
If the Audit is convinced of Railway administration replies that there are no irregularities, the draft paras will be dropped- If the audit considers the cases as irregular the draft paras will be included in the report of the CAG and the report is presented to the Parliament where it is taken up for consideration by the Public Accounts Committee. The Committee obtains personal evidence of senior officers of the Railway Board. The recommendations made by the Committee are considered by the Railway Board and notes on action taken by the Board are submitted to the Committee.

The Audit Report Covers Comments arising from audit of the Accounts of Railways and Appropriation Accounts on Railway Grants. Other points arising from the test audit of financial transactions of Railways are also included,

The Audit Report generally highlights :-
Financial Results of the year,
Leakage and Seepage of Railway Earnings,
Avoidable expenditure
Underutilization of assets:
Cost over runs due to Time overruns in the execution of projects
Inventory Control,

11.1 RECTIFICATION OF MISTAKES IN ACCOUNTS DISCLOSED BY AUDIT
(Para 922 of Finance Code)

if any mistake or inaccuracy is disclosed by Audit or detected in internal check, the following procedure should he adopted :
1) The mistakes should be rectified through the account of the month in hand if the accounts of the year have not been finally closed. (Any nature or mistakes)
2) Mistakes and misclassification noticed after, closing March Accounts but before the preparation _of Capital and Revenue and Finance Accounts should be rectified - The corrections should be intimated to the Railway Board by the first week of August either through a revised account or through corrections to accounts already submitted.
3) The following rules are lo he followed if the mistakes are noticed after the submission of Capital and Revenue and Finance Accounts :-
(a) If the item belongs to one revenue or service head but is wrongly classified under another - No correction need be made. A suitable note against the original entry is sufficient
The mistakes must, however, be corrected if the error affects (i) the revenue or expenditure of another Railway or a branch line company or another Government Department (ii) Capital Head (iii) Debt or remittance head.
(b) Capital - If the corrections affect capital major heads the same should be effected as without financial adjustment i.e. by altering the progressive figure of capital outlay.
(c)Debt or Remittance head : If the error affects a debt or remittance head the following procedure should be followed ;-
(i) Item taken to one debt or remittance head instead of another (either debit or credit) the correction should be made by transferring it from one to the other
(ii) Item credited or debited to a debt or remittance head instead of revenue or service head - same procedure as mentioned at (i) above,
(iii) Item credited or debited to a revenue head instead of to a debt or remittance head - correction should be made by minus crediting or minus debiting the revenue head and crediting or debiting the proper head,4, If the rectification of mistake would lead to an excess over grant or grants voted by Parliament or to a considerable change in the dividend payable in General Revenue, the orders of Financial Commissioner (Railways) must be obtained

GOVT ACCOUNTS AND BOOKS

GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTS,
1. Governed by the requirements of the constitution and instructions of parliament through its committees,
2. Purpose is to determine as to how as little money as possible may be taken from the tax payer to maintain the activities,
3. There must be a systematic record of all receipts and expenditure classified appropriately,
4. Generally kept on a single entry system,
5. Maintained on cash basis,,
6. Statement of receipts and expenditure is only prepared,

COMMERCIAL ACCOUNTS
1. Governed by standard accounting practices and conventions and the law of the land such as company law, income tax law etc
2. Purpose is to show how as much can be earned as possible consistent with the requirement of the business
3. There should be a record of the usage of capital, profit/loss source of profit/loss and indication about the solvency of the company
4. Maintained on double entry basis
5. Maintained in accrual basis
6. Trading accounts, manufacturing account, profit and loss account and balance sheet are prepared
STRUCTURE OF GOVT. ACCOUNTING
PART I
CONSOLIDATED FUND OF INDIA

It is governed by Article 266 of constitution of India All receipts and expenditure both h on capital and revenue accounts are accounted for. In addition, loans and advances to Govt employees are accounted
REVENUE
Deals with the proceeds of taxation and other receipts classified as revenue and expenditure there form Rlys: The traffic receipts form the main source of revenue and working expenses are the main revenue expenditure
CAPITAL
Deals with expenditure met with the object of increasing the assets. Rlys: Capital, DRF, DF, OLW-R & Capital Fund according to nature of assets and rules of allocation Block account prepared for all assets irrespective of the source of funds. Loan account reflects expenses charged to loan from General revenue - Capital
DEBT – PUBLIC DEBT, LOANS & ADVANCES
Rlys: HBA, Scooter advance, cycle advance, natural calamity etc both advances and repayment of loans and recoveries of advances

PART II
CONTINGENCY FUND OF INDIA
It is governed by Article 267 of constitution of India. It is operated to meet unforeseen expenditure pending authorization of parliament. It is under the disposal of the F C of Railway.
PART III
PUBLIC ACCOUNTS OF INDIA

It is governed by Article 268 of constitution of India. All receipts and expenditure both h on capital and revenue accounts are accounted for. In addition, loans and advances to Govt employees are accounted
DEBT (OTHER THAN IN PART I)
It consists of receipts and payments other than those under Debt heads pertaining to Part I. eg. PF, Reserve Fund,Security Deposits, EMD, Departmental advances
REMITTANCES
It merely embraces adjusting heads which appear transfer among different circles.
GENERAL and SUBSIDIARY BOOKS

GENERAL BOOKS
1. The General Cash Book or The Daily Abstract Of Cash Transactions (Form A 304)
2. The General Cash Abstract Book or The Monthly Classified Abstract Of Cash Transactions (Form A 306)
3. The Journal ( Form, A 307)
4. The Ledger (Form A 310)
SUBSIDIARY BOOKS
1. Register of Works
2. Registers of Capital, DRF, DF, Capital Fund and OLWR
3. Revenue Allocation Register
4. Register of Earnings
5. Suspense Registers
a. Demands Payable Register
b. Misc. Advance Register
c. “F” Loans And Advances Register
d. Deposit Misc. Register
e. Deposit Unpaid Wages Register
f. Demands Recoverable Register
Capital Suspense Registers(Stores & Workshop Suspense
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENERAL AND SUBSIDIARY BOOKS
GENERAL BOOKS

Monthly accounts are prepared from the postings made in the general books,
Only the voucher no and amount are posted in the general book,
Maintained to collect and bring into account the transactions of an accounts circle,
Are mainly meant t prepare accounts suiting the principles of Govt. accounting,

SUBSIDIARY BOOKS
Schedules accompanying account current are prepared from the ;postings made in the subsidiary registers ( e.g. details of earnings and working expenses and works expenditure)
Details of transactions are recorded in the subsidiary registers
Maintained to exercise control over expenditure of an accounts circle
Serves to keep accounts to suit the commercial principles of accounting